Concept Of Role And Role Episode Model

Concept Of Role And Role Episode Model Role stress is highly inevitable in nature and has become problem at workplace for employers and organization. The main purpose of this paper to study the concept of role, role stress, their biosocial variables as well as role episode model. . Number of studies found that there is difference in the impact of role stress across occupations..This paper also deals management of role stress with the help of mentoring and role episode model. Role episode model is a classical model used to measure role stress. Key words: Role episode model, Role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload, bio-social variables, job stress, job satisfaction, job performance. Introduction : The concept of stress was first proposed by Hans Selye (1936). Selyes well-known definition of stress, based on his research, is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it (Selye, 1974).Stress is broader in term and to define stress is very difficult. Due to its complex nature most of the researchers cannot agree on a single definition ( Kahn Boysiere ,1992). Stress can be a motivator and get the job done .Some stress researchers ( e.g Golembiewski, Munzernrider and Stewenson ,1986;Sharahan and Mortimer ,1996),distinguish between negative stress ,termed distress and positive stress, termed eustress. This good stress or eustress can be defined as is actually a positive and healthy form of stress and some people enjoy it .Eustress activates and motivates people to accomplish goal. The Distress is when the good stress becomes too much to bear or cope with. It is important to note that there are three levels of stress -low level, moderate or optimal level and high l evel. Moderate or Optimal level of stress may acts as a motivator. On the basis of literature survey it is clearly understood that too much stress is toxic to employees and too little stress can also lead unexpected problem.e.g too little stress can result in boredom apathy and can be accompanied by low performance and too much stress can cause depression, dissatisfaction, anxiety, tension and low performance. An optimal level of stress results in high energy, motivation and high performanceThe cause of stress is known as stressors stressors are conditions and events that evoke strain (Kahn Byosiere, 1992). According to Cooper Marshall (1978) sources of managerial stress can be categorized into six components -intrinsic to job , role in organization , career development ,organizational structure and climate, relationship within organization and organizational interface and outside .Matteson Ivancevic (1999) and Cook Hunsaker (2001) identified that stress can be caused by envir onmental, organizational, and individual variables. Role stressors belong to organizational variables. Role stressors are major antecedents of job stress among employees in organization .According to Ivancevich Matteson (1980) and French Caplan Harrison (1982) ,role ambiguity and role conflict have been identified as a major source of stress and job tension. Work overload both quantitatively and qualitatively has been empirically linked to a variety of physiological ,psychological and behaviour strain symptoms(Beehr Newman, 1978; Roberts et al., 1997; Miller Ellis, 1990).It was found that role stress variables are associated with job dissatisfaction, lower performance ,increased stress , lower commitment and intention to leave the organization .According to various researchers ( Fisher and Gitelson, 1983; Jackson and Schuler, 1985;Van Sell et al., 1981; Lee, 1997; Jones, 1993),role stress is responsibile for individual as well as organizational outcomes ,such as job tension ,job dissatisfaction , employee turnover and employee burnout and low organizational commitment and performan ce (Johnston et al., 1990; Jackson and Schuler, 1985). Concept of Role Role episode model The term role can be defined as a expected mode of behaviour. There are three types of roles (I) the expected role, (ii) the perceived role and (iii) the actual role. The expected role is what other people expect from an individual. The perceived role is how the individual thinks he or she should behave to fulfil the expected role and the actual role is the way the person actually behaves in the organization. Linton (1936) defined role from culture perspective . Role episode model is known as interactional management tool between Role Set Members Role Incumbent given by Katz and Kahn ( 1978) . In order to examine and integrate the research on role conflict and ambiguity, Khan et al. role episode model is very useful. The model depicts transactional relationship between role senders and focal person. Focal person or role incumbent occupies a particular position (social location) within organization. Individuals who send role expectation to the focal person regarding his or her activities in the role compromise role set ( Merton 1957) .They are called role senders or Role Set Members. When Role Set Members communicated their expectations are called sent role carries role pressure .The set of expectations a role incumbent or focal person receive from Role Set Members is the received role. The role episode model consists of a cyclic series of communications between Role Set Member and the Role Incumbent. This process continues until the role ep isode finishes, creates shared expectations or postpone negotiations. Fig 1 suggests that there are organizational, personal, and interpersonal factors which affect the role episode model. The organizational factors consist structure, level in the organization, role requirements, task characteristics, physical setting, and organizational practices. The personal factors (which can be applied to both the role senders and focal person) refer to such variables age, sex, and tenure in the organization. The interpersonal factors in the relationship between role senders and focal person include frequency of their interactions, mode of communication, importance of senders to focal person, physical location, visibility, feedback and participation. The role senders can be the focal persons supervisors, clients, co-workers, or subordinates. Role sender focal person relationship have generally been investigated by gathering perceptual data on role conflict and ambiguity from the objective responses. Affective responses include job satisfaction, job involvement, tension, threat, anxiety, and propensity to leave the organization. Interpersonal Process Focal Person Experience Response Role Sender Expectations Sent Role Inter Interpersonal Factors Personal Factors Organizational Factors Structure Status Mode of Communication Level Needs Frequency of Interaction Role requirements Values Importance of sender Task Education Mode of Interaction Physical Setting Ability Physical location Practices Age Visibility Sex Feedback Tenure Participation [Source Van Sell et al (1981)] Fig:1 Literature Review Role stress/Role stressors and Bio-social Variables: Role stressors can be defined as anything about an organizational role that produces adverse consequences for the individual ( Kahn and Quinn,1970). Role related stress are concerned with how individuals perceive the expectations others have of them and includes role ambiguity and role conflict ( Alexandros -Stamatios et. al.,2003) .According to Schafer (1998) role stressors are associated with social roles, which are social positions with clustered expectations .Role problems that may cause occupational stress include role overload, role insufficiency, role ambiguity and role conflict (Greenberg, 2009).S ( Kahn,1980; Scbauberock ,Cotton and Jenning,1989;Kellaway and Barling,1990) role stressors are made-up of three variables but related constructs :role conflict ,role ambiguity role overload.The major role stress variables are -role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload/work overload . Role conflict Role conflict takes place when individuals simultaneously perform multiple roles and they conflict each other. Drafte (1998) defined role conflict job roles that interfere with on another and Schafer (1998) defined incompatible expectations associated with a social position, such as student, employee, or mother. Kahn et al (1964) have defined role conflict existence of two or more roles such that to manage with one would make difficult to manage with other.Kahn et al. identify five major forms of roleconflict: 1. Intra-sender conflict:- 2. Inter-sender conflict:- 3. Inter-role conflict:-4.Person-role conflict:- 5. Role-overload: -conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from the same sender.conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from different senders.conflict between roles in situations where an individual holdsmore than one role.where an individuals role requirements are incompatible withhis/her own beliefs, values, and norms.reasonable expectations may have been received from rolesenders, but he/she may not have enough time to address them all. Role ambiguity occurs when an individual does not .possess requisite information to enable effectiveexecution of his/her role. The type of infmmation normally required by the role incumbent includes[Kahn et al., 1964]: 1. relevant expectations relating to the role such as rights, duties, and responsibilities; They identified five major forms of role i) Intrasender Conflict -This type of conflict occurs when a Role Set Member requires the Focal person to perform contradictory .For example a Role Sender may request the Role incumbent to perform task and task cannot be completed without disturbing rules. But Role Sender attempts to enforce the rule. ii)Intersender Conflict -The Focal person experiences this type of conflict , if the role behaviour demanded by one Role Set Members incompatible with the role behaviour demanded by another Role Set Members. iii) Interrole Conflict -This type of conflict occurs when the Focal person receives two or more role at a time which are incongruence in nature. iv) Intrarole conflict ( Person-Role) Conflict Intrarole conflict occurs when the role requirements are incongruent with the focal persons attitudes , values and profession behaviour. v) Role Overload Role overload occurs when the Focal person is required to number of tasks by different Role Set Members . Gender Women experienced more role conflict than men ( Frone et al. (1992); Gutek et al. 1991 and Duxbury et al. (1994).Working women face more inter-role conflict role overload as compare to men /or non-working women ( Kapur,1974).Cooper and Davidson ( 1982) reported that the female executives have more role conflict and role overload because of dual responsibilities. According to Sangamitra, Buddhapriya and Preetham Khandewal (1995),female executives face conflict between job demands and family obligations than the male mangers. Age There is contradictory findings were obtained between age and role conflict .Most of the studies support negative relationship between age role conflict (Peltit,1973: Simpson, 1979:Schwab,1981 Parasuraman Alutto, 1984) and some studies which prove the opposite (Redfeck,1973; and Flora 1977, Madhu Harigopal, 1980 Marital status (Married / Unmarried) It was found that married person experience more role conflict than unmarried person Married working women have to perform dual role and child bearing could be one reason. Number of Children- According to Itshree Padhi,1999 working mothers with more number of children experience high -level of conflict than those who have fewer children.Kala Rani (1976) also found a similar correlation pattern in her study. On the basis of above literature review of role conflict conceptual framework can be designed Role Ambiguity Role ambiguity arises when focal persons do not have clear authority or knowledge about how to perform the assigned jobs (Rizzo, House Lirtzman, 1970; Ivancevich Matteson, 1980; Ashforth Lee, 1990;Kahn et al ,1964) .Individuals having unclear plans and objective ,lack of clarity of ones duty and uncertainty about the amount of authority to perform assignment ( Rizzo et al ,1970) . Role ambiguity occurs when employees perceive a lack of clarity in the behavioural requirements of their job (Kahn et al., 1964; Rizzo et al., 1970). The focal person is likely to experience two types of role ambiguity. One, concerning the task and the related adivities; the other concerning the feedback regarding his performance of the task.RoleFor e.g in case of academics, lack of regular feedback about how well academics were doing was the highest source of stress ( Dua;1994 Sharpley et al.1996). Feedback is important to enable the academics to evaluate their performance on the job and how they are p rogressing in their effort toward task accomplishment. Since positive feedback may serve as higher performance and less stress, academics who do not receive regular feedback may experience considerable uncertainty about their role performance (Bandura Locke, 2003). Higher ambiguity may also arise due to lack of clarity regarding how to prioritize different academic activities of teaching, research and professional services that are necessary for the successful accomplishment of academic role. Regular feedback from a supervisor may acerbate role ambiguity, which in turn reduces stress. Bio-social Variables that are associated with role ambiguity. a) Gender- b) Age- Peltit (1973) reported a negative relationship between role conflict and role ambiguity and age. Similar findings were obtained in an educational setting (Elsenhauer, 1977; Simpson, 1979; Schwab, 1981) but this was not supported by Redfck (1973) and Flora (1977) who conducted studies in a similar background.Pandia (1991) reported that there is no relation between role ambiguity and age.Increasing age was associated with ambiguity ,according to Sreelatha ( 1991) finds a positive relationship between age and job ambiguity .But contradictory findings was obtained by Peltit (1971),he found negative relationship between age and job ambiguity.Increasing age was associated with role ambiguity ,Sreelatha ( 1991) finds a positive relationship between age and job ambiguity . Studies reported that role ambiguity is maximum at lower age group. It has been established that females experience more role ambiguity at lower age group because of the adjustments they have to make at the beginni ng of their married life and the presence of infants in the house etc. c) Length of service / Tenure -According to Madhu ( 1982) Nath ( 1980) there is negative relationship between length of service role ambiguity . Malhan, Agarwal Krishna (1983) reported that managers with relatively less number of years of service might experience role ambiguity detrimental to their performance. There found to be a negative correlation existing between role ambiguity and length of service. Pandia (1991) reported that there is no relation between role ambiguity and age. Role Overload /Work Overload Work overload also known as role overload role overload is a complex form of role conflict. According to Kahn et al ( 1964) role overload is a kind of person-role conflict and it is combining aspects of intersender and person-role conflicts .It occurs simply when employees have more task than he or she can handle. Role overload occurs when role expectations are higher than the focal persons capabilities ( terms taken from Kahn et al ,role episode model) .It can be either qualitative quantitative .Quantitative task can be defined as the person has too many tasks to perform or too little time to perform them and Qualitative occurs when person lacks ability to perform task . Workload stress can be defined as reluctance to come to work and a feeling of constant pressure (i.e. no effort is enough) accompanied by the general physiological, psychological, and behavioural stress symptoms (Division of Human Resource, 2000). a) Gender-Cooper and Davidson ( 1982) reported that the female executives have role conflict and role overload because of their dual roles in the family and the office. Mehta ,Chandwani Mehta were of the opinion women face more workload as compare to men. Coverman (1989)) found that the role overload scores of women were higher than men .But men have higher overall satisfaction than women .Role overload could be one of the major reason of womens psychological stress. Pleck (1985) has suggested that women complain of role overload not because of exhaustion or doing too much, rather her husband is doing too little. b) Age or Length of service span of control Researchers( Philip C Koshy ,1994 ,Gupta Pratap,1987 ;Pestonjee ,1992 ; Sen ,1981) explored that there is negative relation between work load and length of service ,age span of control . Managers who are younger and those having lesser tenure of service experience more role overload. But contradictions finding was obtained For example Johnson et al .(2005) conducted comparative studies of 26 occupations(2005) concluded that teaching is one of the most stressful occupations. The most stressful aspects of the job perceived by teachers include workload, time pressures and no guidance pertaining to various teacher roles (Hui Chan,1996). There was a national survey on occupational stress in Australian universities, research shows that employees at senior level face more workloads and more role-overload (Dua, 1994; Lease, 1999; Winter et al., 2000). Consequences of Role stress: Researchers had proved that role stress affects individual and organization both .Kahn et al , concluded from their study role incumbent experiences low job satisfaction ,lower confidence in organization ,high degree of tension intention to quit organization. Role ambiguity was found to be prevalent as role conflict and the consequences are similar. Netemeyer , Johnston and Burton (1990) , role conflict and role ambiguity may responsible to leave job indirectly through other factors such as job dissatisfaction and low organizational commitment. According to Division of Human Resource, (2000) Workload stress is responsible for physiological, psychological, and behavioural stress symptoms. A number of studies by various researchers ( Behrman Perrault ,1984;Brief and Aldag ,1976;Fisher Gitelson ,1983;House Rizzo ,1972) Relationship between Role stress Job Stress A number of studies proved that role stress are positively associated with anxiety, tension ,low performance and job dissatisfaction. RHL ( Rizzo ,House and Lirtzman ,1970) identified that role ambiguity responsible for job dissatisfaction , anxiety , tension and poor performance. Rosenheim (1976) found that anxiety is directly related to role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload. A number of studies by various researchers ( Behrman Perrault ,1984; Brief and Aldag ,1976; Fisher Gitelson ,1983;House Rizzo 1972;Jackson Schuler ,1985;Johnson Stinson ,1975;Miles,1975;Miles and Perrault 1976; Rizzo at al ,1976;Sohi ,1996) found that role conflict is associated with low job involvement organizational commitment , tension , anxiety intention to leave organization.According to Caplan Jones (1975) role ambiguity was positively associated with anxiety, depression, and resentment. Keenan and McBain (1979) found positive relationship between tension and role overload Similarly, mos t studies report a positive relationship between role ambiguity and tension or anxiety. But two studies report no relationship (Tosi, 1971: Tosi Tosi,1970). Relationship between Role stress Job Satisfaction According to Miles ( 1974 ) that role stress ( role sonflict role ambiguity ) were related to job dissatisfaction . Rosenheim (1976),Organ Greene (1974), Bemardin (1981), Coldwell (1981), Keenan (1981) and Madhu (1982) found same thing .Jackson and Schuler, 1985; Brown and Peterson, 1993; Tubre and Collins, 2000; and Ortqvist and Wincent, 2006 ,they revealed that both role conflict and ambiguity have negative influences on job satisfaction. It has been found that the higher the role conflict, the lower the job satisfaction.( Srilatha ;1991,Keller ;1975,Krant ;1966,Senatra ;1977,Carter ;1878,Singh ;1983, Coldwell ;1984.Jagdish and Srivastava; 1984. Libby, 1978; Simpson, 1979; Price, 1971; Flora, 1977; Wilson,1980; Miller 1979; Riggling, 1979; Yarworth, 1979; Monnelt, 1980; Ahrens, 1977) . But according to Hamner and Tosi (1974) reported no relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction in a study among a sample of managers. Christopher Orpen John Bernath (1987) report that correlation between role conflict and job satisfaction is not significant. Miles (1974) ,Roseenheim( 1976) ,Organ Greene ( 1974),Bemardin ( 1981) .Coldwell ( 1981) , Keenan ( 1981) and Madhu ( 1982) concluded that both role conflict and role ambiguity were negatively related with Job satisfaction Batesman (1981) in his study, reported that role overload resulted in poor job satisfaction. Note-On the basis of various literature reviews I came to know that relationship between role conflict role ambiguity with job satisfaction varies among a variety of occupation. Occupation Job satisfaction. The major outcomes of role conflict are job dissatisfaction and job related tension, which have been isolated among a variety of occupational groups (Beehr, Walsh Taber, 1976; Brief Aldag, 1976; Brief, Aldag, Van Sell Melone,1979; Gross et al., 1958; House Rizzo, 1972;: Miles, 1976; Oliver Brief, 1977-78). According to Hamner and Tosi (1974) reported no relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction in a study among a sample of managers.They reported a positive correlation between role conflict and job threat among a sample of managers.Tosi and Tosi (1970) found a negative relationship between role conflict and job related threat and anxiety. Keller (1975) observed negative relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction among research and development professionals but no such negative. The observation suggests the effects of role conflict vary with various occupations. There are number of studies shown a difference in the impact of role ambiguity across occupations. According to Beehr et al. 1976; Caplan et al. 1975; Greene 1972; Hamner Tosi, 1974; Johnson Stinson 1975; Paul 1974;: Rizzo et al. 1970 role ambiguity to be associated with job dissatisfaction, studies among nurses aides (Brief Aldag, 1976) managers (Tosi, 1971) teachers (Tosi Tosi, 1970) and supervisors and operating employees (Ivancevich Dobbelly, 1974) found no relationship. Relationship between Role stress Job Performance Shrtom , Fried and Cooper (2008) reported that the negative relation between job performance and role overload was higher for managers and non-managers.According to Kahn Boysiera 1992;Mc Grath ,1976 Sahi ,1996 ,there is deleterious effects of role conflict and role ambiguity on Job performance . On the basis of above literature review conceptual framework can be designed : Major Consequences Job Stress Job dissatisfaction Job Performance Role conflict + Role ambiguity + Role overload Fig:2 On the basis of above literature review of role conflict conceptual framework can be designed Management of Role stress in Organization Mentoring -Mentoring can be one effective tool to manage role stress at workplace .According to Hunt Michael, (1983) mentors are highly experienced person in organization who is interested in guiding and promoting individuals career and also members of that Role Set. In addition mentors can provide role clarifying information to focal person and alternatives for dealing with role demands including role expectation that may create conflict. According to Griffin ( 1992) suggest that role ambiguity occurs because a person is not clear about her or his role. Role ambiguity occurs when there is non-existent of information or there is no proper communication between Role Set Members and Role incumbent .Mentors can provide information that can clarify role expectation. Sawyer, 1992 found that quality feedback from Role Set Members or supervisors and co-workers is responsible to minimize role ambiguity. According to Major, Kozilowski ,Chao Gardner (1995 ) ,intentions to leave organization can be minimized by high quality exchange between leaders and sub-ordinates. Role sender / Role Set Members / Mentors Clear Role expectations Quality feedback Focal Person /Role Incumbent Experienced less Role conflict / Role ambiguity Feedback loop Note- Adapted from Role Episode Model , Mentors can be treated as a Role Set Members . Fig :3 Role Episode Model classical tools to minimize level of role conflict and role ambiguity Role Episode Model ( Kahn et al ,1964) ,which is most suitable model to explain variables related to role conflict and role ambiguity and is widely used by researchers to study role stress variables among workers (Schuler, 1975; Fisher Gitelson ;1973) According to Doughtery and Pitchard ,1985 ,the role conflict and role ambiguity measurement captured somewhat global perception of role stress and can be used with any job. Role conflict occurs in organization with the conflicting demands from There are various factors related to role stress such as organizational factors, interpersonal factors and attributes of person ( Role Set Member Focal Person both) . For Examples:Faridah Ibrahim ( Predictors of Role Stress Among Malaysian Journalist in Newsroom Decision Making Process ,Journal Komunikasi 2001 )conducted research on journalist to identify the predictor variables involved in role stress( Role conflict Role ambiguity) and he adopted Role Episode model which consists of organizatio nal variables , interpersonal variables personal variables. According to Kahn et al ( 1964) role stress occurs as enacted by role behaviours could be associated with these factors. Researcher taken 12 independent variables ( organizational variables are participation in task decision ,participation in decision making ,leadership behaviour supportive ,task characteristics ,leadership structure deadline pressure .Interpersonal variables are communication relationship and Interpersonal relationship .Personal variables are age ,years in formal education ,salary years of working) for investigation and out of the 12 variables four variables ( working experience beta =-.29;deadline pressure ,beta=-.25 ,task characteristics beta=-.20 and participation in task decision, beta=.13) were found to be good predictors of role conflict and for role ambiguity ,out of the 12 variables four variables ( interpersonal relationship ,Beta= -.39;;participation in decision making ,Beta = -.17, task chara cteristics ,beta= -.17 and years of experience ,beta = -.11) were found to be good predictors. it can be said that working experience is the strongest predictor for role conflict . Conclusion : There are independent biosocial variables are responsible in contributing stress in role stressors.in role ambiguity. .Biosocial variables are independent variables which interact with role stressors to produce negative consequences such as job stress, job dissatisfaction and low performance .Researchers found that there is positive relationship between role stressors and job stress, job dissatisfaction and role performance. Contradictory findings were obtained by some researchers in relationship between role stress and job dissatisfaction. It was found that difference in the impact of role ambiguity and role conflict across various occupations. Studies found that role ambiguity to be associated with job dissatisfaction, but studies among nurses aides, managers, teachers and supervisors and operating employees found no such relationship. Number of researchers explored that there is negative relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction but in case of research and developmen t professionals but no such negative relationship had been found.Role stress can be managed by mentoring as well as role episode model .Role Episode model is one the classical tool to identify significant predictors associated with role stress and predictors can be analysed to minimize role stress. In mentoring role sender can play role of mentor ,who can communicate clear role expectations as well as expectations that match the focal persons expectation . In addition quality feedback from role sender to the focal person can monimize the effects of role stress on individual as well as organization. Intrapersonal conflict involves diagnosis of and intervention in ,conflict . Diagnosis Intrapersonal conflict can be diagnosed by self report ,observation and interview method .Rizzo et al designed questionnaire to measure role conflict and role ambiguity and is frequentely used in organization studies. Conclusion: Role conflict , role ambiguity and role overload are associated with biosocial variables such as age , gender , years of experience , marital status and number of children .Biosocial variables are independent variables which interact with role stressors to produce http://htmlimg1.scribdassets.com/4lk2zrg8e8y8jki/images/27-9e40fbd968.jpg

All humans should be treated with respect Essay

In examining the religious teachings about the values of human life using religious teachings it is easy to see that God thinks all human life equal regardless of race, gender or disability and encourages all his ‘sheep’ (followers of his, who he regards not as servants but as friends) to do so as well. This is proven in 1st Corinthians 7 18- 20 where it is said, ‘Was a man already circumcised when he was called? He should not become uncircumcised. Was a man uncircumcised when he was called? He should not be circumcised. Circumcision is nothing and uncircumcision is nothing. Keeping God’s commands is what counts. Each person should remain in the situation they were in when God called them.’, the passage suggests that God cares not about the outward appearance or position of his followers but their obedience to his command, regardless of what life they have lived or what they were before, it also supports the fact that God was willing to take converts and so did not make distinctions between the human race or bear prejudice to those who were previously not his followers and had converted. The belief of equality for all of mankind is further supported by the bible which (Genesis 1:27) proclaims that all were made ‘in the image of God’ and therefore bear a likeliness to him regardless of any differences we might show. This theory is known as imago dei and is one shared by the three Abrahamic religions – it is thought that our likeliness to God means all human life should be treated with respect and dignity. (Matthew 5:43-38) ‘Ye have heard it that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to those that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you’. This passage states that Christians should bear hate to no one even those who wish ‘harm’ unto them and instead pray for them and still show love to them regardless suggesting that Christians should have compassionate and fair attitudes towards all in dividuals. This belief of equality, understanding and acceptance no matter the past or social standing of the person is present in most other religions such as Islam, Judaism and Buddhism and now-days most religions are known to visit jails (where sinners lay) trying to convert the ‘evil’ and ‘lost’ (sinners)  so that they may repent and instead become children of God an example of important converts is Charles Colson who was part of the Watergate Seven, he was arrested and pleaded guilty to Watergate related charges and the obstruction of justice before being sentenced for 1-2 years in prison. While in prison Colson converted to Christianity and when released started Prison Fellowship – a national ministry that helps prisoners to convert to Christianity, it is said that this program ‘ has helped prisoners live a better life and strengthen their spirit’. Quakers a faction derived from Christianity believe ‘there is that of God in everybody’, meaning that no one is more important than anyone else as they are all made in God’s image by God, however even within this organisation – people still have to take charge and allocate certain responsibilities to others meaning they become leaders and therefore more important that everyone else, suggestion that they are not equal to everyone else as they are worth more. There are two main Christian views on the truth of other religions; The exclusive view (mainly fundamentalists) who like Christians in the past believe all ‘non-Christians’ are not doing what is ‘right’ and therefore will be condemned to Hell unless converted. Fundamentalist try to convert others to Christianity through the means of ‘evangelism’ etc. becoming ‘missionaries’. This is because of their literal interpretations of the bible, believing in John 3:18 which states, ‘whoever does not believe in him (Jesus) stands condemned already’, fundamentalists do not only just extend this view towards non-believers but also to Jews who do not believe in Jesus as the son of God citing John 14:6 in which Jesus said, ‘I am the way the truth and the Life, no one comes to the Father except though me’. This view contrasts with the Inclusive view where Christianity is believed to be superior to other religions (or bearing more truth) but doesn’t require conversion only adhering to the ‘right’ attitude to be saved from hell. While inclusive Christians might try forms of evangelism such as becoming missionaries, they are generally more understanding of others, this means many of them become involved with charities such as Tearfund or Christian Aid as a way to help others and also convince them (without words) that Christianity holds the ‘truth’ and the ‘right’ way. They use quotes like: ‘There are many rooms in my Father’s house’ as a way of suggesting that  there are different ways to get to heaven and different paths one can take, as long as one follows the ‘right’ way. It can be argued that inclusive Christians more than exclusive/fundamentalist really follow the teachings of the bible, they more than exclusive Christians can be argued to â€Å"love thy neighbour† and therefore treat others the way they’d like to be treated. The bible teaches that Jesus treated ‘foreigners’ very well, he healed a roman centurion’s son and later had dinner with Zaccheus, a hated tax collector for the Romans, suggesting that he did exactly what he preached, loved the ‘enemy’ and treated everyone well, this behaviour is also reflected in the parable of the good Samaritan where a man(a Jew) is robbed and lies naked, hurt and poor on the road – a priest and leaders of other religions pass him by and ignore him, the only person who stops and helps him, even paying for his treatment is a Samaritan, people who were hated by Jews and who in turn hated them. This parable, not only shows ‘foreigners’ in a good light but also promotes the teaching of ‘loving thy enemy’. In Galatians 3, the bible once again reinforces that God loves all of humanity unconditionally regardless of Gender or race, proclaiming ‘There is no difference between Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.’ supporting Acts 10 in declaring that God does not favour a specific group of humanity or ‘show favouritism’ but rather ‘accepts men from every nation who fear Him and do what is right’. Some critics however argue that these teachings are presented as only favouring those who believe in Christ and therefore making an outsider of those who do not ‘fear him’ and do what God proclaims to be ‘right’ and almost exempting them from the ‘rules’ and teachings he lays down to his followers, presenting the argument of: does religion treat non-believers equally? The fact that there are many different sects of Christianity had led to many different views about the treat ment of others, with the term others representing black, non-‘whole bodied'(disabled), homosexuals etc. as well as extending to different cultures and religions not just non-believers. Walter Laqueur a man of Jewish faith, believes that sex is historically and culturally variable, with the modern idea of two separate sexes representing a shift away from the longer-established view that there is a ‘single male  sex, of which the female is an inferior manifestation’, he believes these developments have led to a society which believes that both men and women should occupy and negotiate a range of different positions within the world instead of living in a ‘patriarchy’ where women do not have a main role in religion.This view is opposed by many other religions, Catholics for example believe that women can have a role in church, but cannot be priests because of the ‘fact’ that Jesus was a man, and he chose all 12 of his disciples to be men. Catholics also interpret St Paul’s teachings in Timothy 2 which suggest that women should have no authority over men as being correct, â€Å"A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent.† Taking the view that ‘Adam was formed first, then Eve’ and ‘Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner.’. Some fundamentalist believe that men and women are equal before God but still have different roles in life meaning women shouldn’t be offered equal opportunities in everything including religion claiming that the women’s main job should be as a home-maker – looking after the children not being in positions of leadership in the church. The Church of England however is against this interpretation and believes that women can be priests. They believe that we are all equal in God’s eyes, and also that Jesus had many women followers. Mary and others have been named in the Bible at significant points in Jesus’ life, and there are books in the Bible named after women. They use quotes such as: â €Å"There is neither male nor female, you are all one in Christ Jesus.† (Galatians 3) to support their reasoning. Some black theologians claim that religion has always been ‘bias’ to the white man and therefore racist and oppressing to black people. They argue that this has created a divide between ‘white God’ and ‘black God’. Only in 1985 did the Church of England announce the Church should ‘make space for and include black Christians fully’, this was almost a centuries after the freedom of Black people as slaves and many years after black liberation had occurred ( officially). However while many Christians like Pope John Paul, who condemned the fact that Christians had contributed to the slave trade, finally got Black people some equality some sects of Christianity such as the Southern Baptists in USA up until 1900, the Dutch Reformed Church in  South Africa until 1980 and many Christians in the 16th, 17th and 18th century believed that certain races were inferior and could be treated as either 2nd class citizens or slaves because of two Bible verses: Genesis 9:18-27 – which states that the descendants of Noah’s third son (Ham – who is thought to be black by many Christians) will be cursed and be the slaves of his second son Japheth(thought to be white by many) and Ephesians 6:5 – which states ‘Slaves obey your masters’ -a verse that some Christians thought meant that it was fine to have inferior races and slaves. There is also the question of disability in religion with old-age Christians and Buddhism believing it was a punishment for evil deeds/sin (or bad karma in past lives). This viewpoint however has changed in recent times whereas being disabled was once viewed as being an imperfect version of an able bodied person, a description that suggests that disabled people are of less value than an able bodied person, recent views believe in Aristotle interpretation, ‘that physical defects do not prevent a person from actualising their potential as a human being because the essence of being human does not rest on purely physical abilities’ a viewpoint which a charity called L’arche founded by a Christian recognises. Aristotle point further illustrates a verse of the bible which proclaims that we are ‘all born of sin’, which supports that no one is perfect- we’re all flawed one way or another and therefore are in one way or another – disabled. Islam is considered an egalitarian religion meaning one that is pro-equality. There is an argument made by several Muslim Women scholars such as Al-Hibri who argues that ‘the situation of women globally is too complex and contradictory for one comprehensive critique, saying that in some nations: Muslim women experience horrendous forms of violence and oppression, often under the label of Islam whereas in another nation Muslim women may occupy positions of power in significant social and political institution also due to Islam. Many argue that whilst there are many practices contrary to women’s rights which are done in the name of Islam, the reality is that there is no basis in Islam for them. Others make the important point that there are many factors at work which have allowed such oppressive practices to continue, such as the existence of patriarchal cultures that are often  confused with religious belief or the existence of authoritarian regimes that deny more than just women’s claiming ‘undemocratic regimes have denied human rights to their citizens, and attempted to lay the blame on the doorstep of religion’ suggesting that it is not religion that is unequal, but those who practise it. It can be argued that the term equality has different meanings in different situations – you can’t be equal to all people through one measure because everyone has different conditions that must be met etc. you can’t feed a Muslim the same way you’d choose a Hindu, you couldn’t offer a Muslim a pig as it would cause trouble due to the offer being interpreted as an insult, this however doesn’t mean you can’t treat persons of both religion the same; with kindness and compassion regardless of their religion. This has led to many arguing that the solution is not just treating everyone equally (as equality suggests same treatment) but rather introducing tolerance and acceptance. They believe that conversion in religions isn’t something that should occur forcefully but instead something that should be gently approached – through the means of missionaries (in religions such as Jehovah witnesses and Mormons) for example. However some religions have a zero tolerance on those they consider ‘outsiders’, this include Zionism and it’s treatment of the Palestinians and some Jewish sects which refused to assimilate into the societies they lived in (Ashkenazic Jews), preferring to stay ‘outsiders’ because they believe the Torah forbids mixing with ‘gentiles’ due to their interpretation of Avoda Zara 36b which states â€Å"You shall not intermarry with them; you shall not give your daughter to his son and you shall not take his daughter for your son; for he will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others.† Many Christians (and some Jews) thoroughly disagree with this verse with Christians believing it is directed ad them and painting them as immoral idolaters and some Jews believing the passage to contradicting (with the rest of the Torah) and too brief to be fully understood. This raises the argument among theologians th at the bible and other ‘holy books’ are too contradicting, confusing and sometimes too lacking of Context to be fully interpreted and rather, the teachings should not be taken at face value but rather, used to regulate but not to set iron cast laws .   However there are many contradicting verses in the bible which suggest otherwise.   Islam states: ‘O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honourable of you with God is the most pious.Verily, God is All-Knowing, All-Aware.’ (49:13) about the difference within human beings, suggesting that they are deliberate and diversity is God’s gift to humankind.   Judaism, Christianity and Islam   The founder of Quakers, George Fox but instead of seeking primarily to convert, the upmost goal is to establish the principles of Christianity in others’ lives etc. love, humility and compassion.   And the Qur’an which states: ‘I shall not lose sight of the labour of any of you who labours in My way, be it man or woman; each of you is equal to the other (3:195)’   The Qur’an states ‘For Muslim men and women,- for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in God’s praise,- for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward. (33:35)’ suggesting that everyone, not just Muslim men and women will get the reward as long as they are ‘humble’ and adhere to Muslim practises even if they do not adopt the religion†¦   The most beloved and respected historical Christian thinkers and theologicans are amongst those who believe the role of women in religion should be subdued with John Crysostom considering the female sex as â€Å"weak  and fickle† ,Augustine claims Satan’s reasoning for deceiving Eve was because he was â€Å"making his assault upon the weaker part of that human alliance eand Epiphanius declaring that the â€Å"female sex is easily mistaken, fallible, and poor in intelligence† even Martin Luther King supports this argument stating â€Å"it was not Adam who went astray† 265).  an idea that men systematically dominate, oppress and exploit women I many believe that a patriachical state doesn’t and didn’t ever exist and instead we have just been living in a world dominated by a complex set of differences; ethnic, racial, gendered, class hierarchy and not just gender.   In this generation, although there are many verses in the bible to suggest that women should have and did have a very important and immensely valuable role in founding and shaping Christianity.   For man did not come from woman, but woman from man; neither was man created for woman, but woman for man†¦In the Lord,  however, woman is not independent of man, nor is man independent of woman. For as woman came from man, so also man is born of woman. But everything comes from God† (New International Version, 1 Corinthians 11:1-3;8-9;11-12).   1 Corinthians 14 says, ‘Women should remain silent in churches’ which many interpret as saying- women shouldn’t be in positions of leadership in the church.   Proverbs 31 implies the place of a woman is at home – ‘She watches over the affairs of her household’   But women will be saved through childbearing-if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety†(New International Version, 1 Timothy 2:11-15).   This is known as Christian egalitarian. The opposing view is Complementarianism.   Although, when the decision was made to allow Women into the church in 1992, many people left the Church of England as a result and converted to Catholics. This shows that there still isn’t equality in Religions such as Christianity as while some may be ‘for’ the inclusion of women, the one who aren’t may simply join a different fraction and practise their ‘anti-feminist in religion’ perspectives there. This supports the view that freedom in religion is in conflict with notions of gender equality.   A prominent Muslim mother to an autistic child once wrote to a follower who also had an autistic child – ‘As with typically-developing children, every special-needs child has his or her own personality, temperament, strengths, and abilities. Every child has his or her God-given potential. This is from the mercy of Allah and one of the signs of His strength that He created such diversity among human beings. We should rejoice in the creative power of Allah and accept His qadr, or decree, for us. I believe that Allah created disabilities so those of us who are able-bodied would not become complacent and ungrateful. Taking care of a child with a disability brings out the best and most compassionate in all of us. So many of the things that parents of typically-developing children take for granted, we have to fight and struggle for. I think this helps us draw closer to the All-Merciful, the Forbearant, and the Loving.’ This supports the view that all human life is sacred and must be treated with the rights given to it in the Shari’a and that no one has the right to take the life of another except according to God’s command. It also gives way to an argument that could claim moral worth of a person does not depend on birth, gender, race or wealth or whether or not a person is disabled. â€Å"Class background, as well as the degree and severity of impairment, ethnicity, sex, sexuality and age can exacerbate or modify the experience of disability† (Vernon, 1999:394) Many may argue that this isn’t a religion; however most agree that it is a branch of Judaism – if a very distant branch. Different from Sephardim (who chose to assimilate into the nations they moved to and Mizrahi Jews who also assimilated into the nations they found themselves in.

Innovation in Food and Beverage Outlet

Executive summary â€Å"CONCEPT SELLS AND NOT JUST THE FOOD† – the project is executed only because of the fact that the statement i just made holds true in today’s challenging world. With the progression of the food service industry over the ages, it is appropriate to define a food and beverage outlet as a commercial organisation whose primary objective is profitability by means of discharging food and beverage to a guest. Thus it can be stated that one of the amin motives of the existence of a food and beverage outlet is profitability. Over the years there has been a padigram shift, and it’s not about the food and beverage anymore but it is about the â€Å"whole experience. † Thus, in this project i intend to explore innovations in the food and beverage industry, the various kinds of Entertainment and Novel ideas introduced by restaurateur and see the evolution of the entertainment over the years with the global perspective. The list of activities that i intend to undertake is : Do a detailed research of the innovations that the various renowned outlets across the world have done inorder to attract customers and increase their sales. Visit and study various outlets in mumbai in reference with the innovations done. Study the in-house entertainment provided by the various outlets in mumbai like tendulkar’s, out of the blue, jazz by the bay etc. Take personal interviews of the restaurateurs. Analyse the data acquired. Based on the study, make recommendations for a basic outlet so as to increase its profit. As it is said that â€Å"nowadays people pay for the experience and not just for the food† and also the busy schedule does not allow them to go to different places for enetrtainment and food, combination of entertainment and good food is exactly what is required. Inorder to understand the concept better i am short listing some restaurants in mumbai which have used innovations to drive customers in and will give details of the same. However, does entertainment in a food and beverage outlet actually make a difference to the guest or the outlet? What are the diffrent forms of entertainment that a food and beverage outlet offers? What are the innovations used? These questions will be discussed in depth in the due course of the project.

The Aids Epidemic Ran Rampant Through America - 2575 Words

In the election year of 1992, the AIDS epidemic ran rampant through America, despite attempts to curb its effects. Not only was America as a country unwilling to step up to help an already stigmatized population, but finding ways to deal with the rapid spread became more of an accessory to political agendas than a necessity to save lives. The Republican party, which holds on to religiously-influenced ideals, was not eager to offer support to a group which Christianity condemns, so did very little to rectify the epidemic. On top of inaction, many did not want to help gay people; homosexuality was still widely unaccepted in society, and the addition of AIDS to the LGBT community did nothing to endear their situation to the general public.†¦show more content†¦She begins her speech by saying, â€Å" I would never have asked to be HIV positive, but I believe that in all things there is a purpose; and I stand before you and the nation gladly† (Fisher 1), letting the audien ce know that she is using her experiences as a sufferer of AIDS to come forwards and speak plainly on the truth of the disease; she took her infection not as a setback, but as motivation to come forward and give a silenced community a voice. She even says that her contraction of AIDS came with more than just a lifetime of struggles; underlying the medical problems lays a â€Å"purpose† (Fisher 1)—one which Fisher believes to be activism against the continuation of the spread of AIDS, giving her the identity of a â€Å"messenger† (Fisher 3), and, in extension, credibility. Fisher needed this credibility, as her criticism was a â€Å"sharp rebuke of her party’s negligence† in the face of the suffering of a group they did not care for, and they may not have listened if they thought she spoke lightly or without reason (Shaw 1). Fisher also challenges the belief that the grief HIV and AIDS leave in their wake generally lies outside the realm of the worr ies of those who are part of the majority groups largely unaffected by the disease. She tells the Convention that, though they may never have expected to see a heterosexual, married woman speak freely of her diagnosis withShow MoreRelatedDomestic Violence And Its Effects On Society1859 Words   |  8 PagesUnnecessary Roughness: when 15 hours of community service or minimal fines aren’t enough An epidemic is sweeping through America unacknowledged. It’s not contagious, but rampant in all communities. It is not Ebola, Sars or Influenza yet, it is still a silent predator lurking secretly behind closed doors. Domestic violence kills. The facts are startling; one in every four women will experience domestic violence in her lifetime, and those are just the cases that are reported. In the past weeks, America’sRead MoreVaccination, Center For Disease Control, World Health Organization2861 Words   |  12 Pagesan anti-vaccination movement in which members of the movement refuse to give their children any sort of vaccination. 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